Scientific Report

What is Scientific Report Writing?

Scientific report writing is a structured method of communicating research findings concisely and objectively, typically following the IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) format.

Scientific reports have two primary goals:

1. To gather the information presented.

2. To know that the findings are legitimate.

The purpose of a science report is to clearly communicate your key message about why your scientific findings are meaningful. In order to do this, you need to explain why you are testing a hypothesis, what methodology you used, what you found, and why your findings are meaningful.

A scientific report should conform to the following general arrangement:

1. Title

2. Abstract

3. Introduction

4. Materials and Methods

5. Results

6. Discussion

7. References

TITLE: It should clearly and briefly indicate what the report is about. The title is never a complete sentence, and articles (a, an, the) are usually omitted. Use title case capitalisation.

ABSTRACT: It should be no longer than 200 words and should include the main objectives, findings (i.e., results), and conclusions. A reader should be able to grasp the full scope and significance of the work reported without having to read the entire report.

INTRODUCTION: It discusses the theoretical background to the investigation and places the present work in context. Relevant references should be cited and the reader’s attention moved from the general to the specific. The aims of the present study should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: This section should include all information required for an exact repetition of the work performed. Since you are reporting on work already done, it is customary to use the PAST PASSIVE tense. Compare the following:

• PAST ACTIVE: We performed the experiment over three weeks.

• PAST PASSIVE: The experiment was performed over three weeks.

The methods should not be written as instructions to the reader, nor presented as an itemised list. Subheadings may be appropriate. For work conducted in class, a reference to the appropriate practical manual may be enough in this section.

RESULTS: It consists of data and some comments that draw attention to the most significant  aspects of the results. The data are usually presented in tables or graphs, but do not duplicate the data in different formats. Any comment on the results should be quantitative rather than just qualitative; that is, any comments should be backed up with data.

• NO The treatment was more effective.

• YES The treatment was 50% more effective.

DISCUSSION: It is usually the most important section of the report. It should include comments on the results, especially any unexpected results. The results should be compared to the standard value and be explained or justified in light of the original aims.

A scientific report moves from the general to the particular to the general. It begins in the Introduction section with the theory related to the experiment, moves on to the work carried out in the Methods and Results sections, and returns to general ideas in the Discussion section by discussing whether the results obtained are consistent or not with the theory. In many cases, it may be appropriate in the discussion to comment on the suitability of the method used in the experiment.

The conclusions are usually included in the discussion, but they can be separate. If they are separate, the discussion should be summarised and a comment made on the success, or otherwise, of the experiment.

REFERENCES: It should be an accurate listing of all the sources referred to. Entries must conform to the conventions of the referencing system used. Begin the list of references on a new page with the heading ‘References’ centred.

Formating a Report:

Fonts and spacing:

Font should be a minimum of 12 point and double line spacing is recommended unless otherwise specified. Titles and headings may be in bold font. A blank line is usually used between paragraphs, but no indentation is used.

Tables and figures

Tables, graphics, and photos are placed immediately after they are first referred to in the text.  Tables and figures (graphic and photos) should be sequentially numbered in a separate sequence  (i.e., Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 1, Figure 2). In large reports with many chapters, they are sequentially numbered in each chapter (i.e., for Chapter 2 you begin from Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1). In APA 7th style, titles for tables and figures are left aligned above the table. The source of the table or figure should also be included below the figure/table, usually in a smaller font (e.g., 10 point) and aligned at the left-hand margin.

References:

“Formatting Science Reports – The Writing Center – UW–Madison.” The Writing Center, https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/sciencereport/. Accessed 25 January 2026.

“Scientific Reports – The Writing Center.” The Writing Center, https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/scientific-reports/. Accessed 25 January 2026.

“Writing a Scientific Report.” University of New England, https://www.une.edu.au/library/students/academic-writing/write-essays-reviews-and-reports/write-reviews-reports-and-more/Scientific-report.pdf.

Abstrac & Summary: Scientific Writing

 Hello Reader!!!

This blog explores the basics of Abstract and summary writing in a scientific background. 

What is Abstract Writing?

The word abstract comes from the Latin abstractum, which means a condensed form of a longer piece of writing. 

Abstract writing is creating a concise, standalone summary of a longer work (like a research paper, thesis, or article) that quickly informs readers about the purpose, methods, key findings, and conclusions, allowing them to grasp the essence and decide if they need to read the full text. 

It's a brief overview, usually 150-300 words, that acts as the paper's "shop window," highlighting essential points and keywords without getting into deep detail.

There are two main types of abstract:

 (1) Descriptive and (2) Informative abstract. 

Core Components of Abstract Writing (IMRaD Structure)

Most scientific abstracts follow a structured format, often based on the IMRaD model (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion), even if not explicitly labeled with these headings

• Background/Introduction (Why): 1–2 sentences defining the problem, the context, and the knowledge gap your research addresses.
• Methods (How): 1–2 sentences detailing the approach, experimental design, setting, and participants
• Results (What): 2–3 sentences highlighting the most crucial findings, including key data, trends, and, when applicable, statistics (e.g., p-values, confidence intervals).
• Conclusion/Discussion (So What): 1–2 sentences interpreting the results, explaining their significance, and offering future directions.

What is a Summary?

An informative abstract or Summary is a short summary of the most important points of a book, article, report, or meeting. It is usually 5% to 15% of the original text. Its main purpose is to save time by giving the reader a quick and clear idea of what the original work contains.

Contents of a Summary 

The main difficulty in writing an abstract is deciding what to include and what to leave out. The following points will help:

What to Include

• Purpose: Clearly state why the article or study was written. Mention the main aim or objective.

• Important details: Include only essential names, dates, places, or figures that help in understanding the topic.

• Results or conclusions: Highlight key findings, outcomes of research, surveys, or tests.

• Recommendations or implications: Mention important suggestions or the significance of the findings.

What to Avoid

• Personal opinions: Do not add your own views or judgments.

• New information: Do not compare the work with other books or articles.

• Unnecessary details: Avoid biographical information about the author.

• Examples and illustrations: Detailed explanations and descriptions are not needed.

• Background information: Skip lengthy introductions or anecdotes.

• Reference material: Do not include information from footnotes, tables, or bibliographies.

• Technical language: Avoid jargon that may confuse readers.

Seven Steps to Write an Informative Abstract

1. Read the entire text carefully to understand its overall meaning.

2. Read it again to identify the main ideas. Focus on the first and last sentences of paragraphs, as they usually introduce and summarize key points.

   • Look for signal words such as:

     • Listing words: first, second, finally

     • Cause-and-effect words: therefore, because, as a result

     • Comparison words: however, although, in addition

3. Prepare a rough draft using the main points. At this stage, you may use the original language.

4. Edit the draft by removing unnecessary information and shortening sentences while keeping the main focus.

5. Rewrite the abstract in your own words, using simple and clear language. Check again for accuracy.

6. Avoid phrases that mention pages or sections, such as “the author discusses” or “on page 5.”

7. Mention the source of the original work briefly.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A SUMMARY AND AN ABSTRACT 

The terms summary and abstract are often used interchangeably resulting in some confusion. This problem arises because there are two distinct types of abstracts – descriptive and informative. The informative abstract is another name for a summary; the descriptive is not. The descriptive abstract is usually only 2 or 3 sentences in length, hence it is not a summary or very informative. 

References: 

“Abstract (summary).” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_(summary). Accessed 24 January 2026.

“Abstract - Writing a Scientific Paper.” Research Guides, 3 December 2025, https://guides.lib.uci.edu/scientificwriting/abstract. Accessed 24 January 2026.

“Difference-between-abstract-and-summary.” Unipa, https://www.unipa.it/dipartimenti/me.pre.c.c./dottorati/oncologiaechirurgiasperimentali/.content/documenti/Difference-between-abstract-and-summary.pdf.

“Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper – The Writing Center – UW–Madison.” The Writing Center, https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/. Accessed 24 January 2026.

Scientific Communication

Scientific Communication (SciComm)

Scientific Communication (SciComm) is the practice of sharing scientific knowledge, methods, and research findings with diverse audiences, including experts, policymakers, and the general public. This communication takes place through various channels such as scientific journals, conferences, media platforms, and digital technologies.

The primary aims of scientific communication are to:

• inform and educate,

• raise awareness,

• influence policy decisions,

• build public trust in science, and

• engage society in scientific discourse.

A key function of scientific communication is bridging the knowledge gap between scientific experts and non-experts. This is achieved through the use of plain language, clear explanations, visuals, and relatable examples, which help make complex scientific ideas understandable, meaningful, and relevant. In doing so, scientific communication fosters scientific literacy and encourages informed decision-making in society.

Understanding Scientific Communication through Science

To understand scientific communication, it is essential first to understand what science is.

What is Science?

Science can be defined as:

“Science is the systematic enterprise of gathering knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing this knowledge into testable laws and theories.”

Science seeks to explain natural phenomena through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. Since scientific knowledge is constantly evolving, it must be communicated accurately and transparently so that others can evaluate, replicate, and build upon it.

Scientific Communication and the Scientific Method

The objective of scientific communication is to accurately and clearly communicate new scientific knowledge. Therefore, it is intimately linked with the scientific method, which provides the foundation for all scientific inquiry.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method generally involves the following steps:

1. Making careful observations of the world

2. Asking questions based on those observations

3. Proposing tentative explanations or hypotheses

4. Using hypotheses to make predictions about unobserved data or phenomena

5. Testing predictions through experiments or further observation

6. Rejecting or modifying hypotheses that fail to predict new observations

Scientific communication ensures that each of these steps, along with their results, is shared transparently and systematically.

The Scientific Communication Path

The process of scientific communication closely follows the research process itself and can be described through the following stages:

1. Defining the research question

2. Gathering relevant information and resources

3. Formulating a hypothesis

4. Performing experiments and collecting data

5. Analyzing the data

6. Interpreting results and drawing conclusions or new hypotheses

7. Publishing and communicating results

At every stage, communication plays a vital role in ensuring clarity, reproducibility, and scholarly dialogue.

Modes of Scientific Communication

Scientific information is communicated through multiple modes, depending on the audience and purpose:

1. Making scientific or technical presentations or posters

2. Writing technical or laboratory reports

3. Writing scientific research papers

4. Writing research or project proposals

5. Sharing data and information through digital and web-based platforms

Each mode requires different levels of detail, technicality, and accessibility.

Importance of Scientific Communication

Effective scientific communication is essential for several reasons:

Addressing Urgent Issues

Scientific communication helps inform the public and decision-makers about critical challenges such as climate change, public health crises, and environmental degradation, enabling evidence-based policies and actions.

Building Transparency and Trust

Since much scientific research is publicly funded, communicating findings openly helps justify this investment and builds public trust in scientific institutions by acknowledging both results and limitations.

Educating and Inspiring

Scientific communication educates non-scientists, improves scientific literacy, and inspires future researchers, innovators, and informed citizens.

Fostering Collaboration

Within the scientific community, clear communication facilitates collaboration across disciplines and contributes to the collective growth of knowledge.

Clarity, Precision, and Objectivity: Click here to read

Conclusion

Scientific communication is a vital bridge between scientific research and society. By following the principles of clarity, precision, and objectivity, scientists ensure that knowledge is shared responsibly, understood widely, and used effectively. In doing so, scientific communication strengthens public trust, supports informed decision-making, and advances both science and society.

References: 

Introduction to Scientific Communication

Scientific Communication

Scientific Communication: Clarity, Precision, and Objectivity

What is Scientific Communication?

Click here to read

Clarity, Precision, and Objectivity

Clarity, Precision, and Objectivity are foundational ideals of scientific communication. These principles ensure that research is presented accurately, ethically, and without bias. While these qualities may appear as stylistic choices in genres such as science fiction—especially hard science fiction—they are essential requirements in scientific writing.

Adhering to these principles maintains credibility and enables other researchers to verify and build upon existing work.

1. Clarity

Clarity involves presenting complex information in a simple, direct, and logical manner so that the audience can understand the message without confusion.

Principles of Clarity:

• Use simple language and short sentences

• Maintain a logical structure

• Define technical terms when necessary

• Prefer active voice where appropriate

Avoid:

• Vague statements

• Wordiness

• Unnecessarily complex vocabulary

Example (Unclear):

“A significant amount of biomass was subjected to an elevated temperature regime for an indeterminate timeframe, eventually leading to a noticeable alteration in molecular structure.”

Example (Clear):

“The plant samples were heated to 100°C for 24 hours, which caused a breakdown of the cellulose structure.”

2. Precision

Precision requires the use of exact and specific language, measurements, and data. It eliminates ambiguity and ensures accurate interpretation.

Principles of Precision:

• Use quantitative data

• Employ standardized units

• Specify conditions clearly

Avoid:

• Vague terms such as some, many, or around

• Colloquial expressions

• Figurative language

Example (Imprecise):

“We collected several water samples near the factory outlet.”

Example (Precise):

“We collected eight 1-liter water samples from the factory outlet pipe (N 34° 03.124', W 118° 18.452') at 10:00 AM on October 26, 2024.”

3. Objectivity

Objectivity means presenting research based solely on evidence and data, without personal opinions, emotions, or bias.

Principles of Objectivity:

• Focus on verifiable data

• Acknowledge limitations

• Present findings fairly and neutrally

Avoid:

• Emotional or persuasive language

• Personal attacks

• Selective presentation of results

Example (Subjective):

“The alarming rise in ocean temperatures is a clear sign that our current environmental policies are a catastrophic failure.”

Example (Objective):

“Data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) indicates an average global sea surface temperature increase of 0.8°C since pre-industrial levels, consistent with climate models.”

Conclusion

Scientific communication is a vital bridge between scientific research and society. By following the principles of clarity, precision, and objectivity, scientists ensure that knowledge is shared responsibly, understood widely, and used effectively. In doing so, scientific communication strengthens public trust, supports informed decision-making, and advances both science and society.

Group Communication

What is Group Communication?

A group means a number of people who interact with each other for a common purpose.
When people talk, discuss, share ideas, or take decisions together, it is called group communication.

A group may meet:

• once (for a specific purpose), or
• regularly (like committees, departments, or teams).

Key Features of a Group:

• More than two people
• Interaction among members
• A common goal or purpose
• Cooperation and discussion

Examples of groups:

• Classroom discussion
• Office meeting
• Committee meeting
• Conference
• Group discussion in interviews

2. Importance of Group Communication

Group communication is very important in education, offices, and organizations.

It helps to:

• understand problems clearly
• share different opinions
• take better decisions
• develop leadership skills
• improve confidence and communication skills

In modern organizations, most decisions are taken through meetings and discussions, not by individuals alone.

3. Problems of Group Communication

Group communication is useful, but it also has some problems.

Common Problems:

1. Lack of participation
   Some members do not speak or take part in discussion.
2. Fear and hesitation
   Some people feel nervous or afraid to speak in front of others.
3. Dominating members
   A few people talk too much and do not allow others to speak.
4. Lack of control
   If the leader does not control the discussion, it becomes confusing.
5. Wasting time
   Meetings may take too long without reaching a conclusion.

These problems can be reduced with good leadership and preparation.

4. Meaning of a Meeting

A meeting is a formally arranged gathering of people to:

• discuss an issue
• solve a problem
• take decisions

Meetings are an important part of business and professional communication.

Types of Meetings

Meetings can be classified based on formality and purpose.

A. Based on Formality

1. Formal Meetings

• Follow rules and procedures
• Examples:
• Company board meetings
• Parliament meetings
• University senate meetings

2. Semi-formal Meetings

• Some rules, but not very strict
• Examples:
• Committee meetings
• Advisory meetings

3. Informal Meetings

• No strict rules
• Friendly and relaxed
• Examples:
• Group discussions
• Brainstorming sessions

B. Based on Purpose

1. Decision-Making Meetings

• Purpose: to take important decisions
• Example: Board of Directors meeting

2. Executive Meetings

• Executives discuss policies and actions

3. Reporting Meetings

• Information is shared
• Example: Briefing sessions

4. Negotiation Meetings

• Two groups discuss to reach agreement
• Example: Management and workers meeting

5. Group Discussion

• Informal discussion
• Used in:
• interviews
• classrooms
• training programs

6. Conference

A conference is a large meeting where:

• many people participate
• ideas, problems, and solutions are discussed

Features of a Conference:

• Large number of participants
• Divided into smaller groups sometimes
• Participants may come from different organizations

Conferences help in learning, sharing experiences, and policy making.

C. Committee Meettings

A committee is a small group of people selected to:

• perform a specific task
• give suggestions or decisions

Types of Committees:

1. Ad-hoc Committee
• Temporary
• Formed for a specific problem
2. Standing Committee
• Permanent
• Works continuously
3. Special Committee
• Formed for special purposes
4. Sub-committee
• Smaller group formed from a main committee

Advantages and Disadvantages of Committees

Advantages:

• Decisions are more democratic
• Many ideas are shared
• Responsibility is shared

Disadvantages:

• Takes more time
• Expensive
• Decisions may be delayed

Advantages and Disadvantages of Meetings

Advantages:

• Exchange of ideas
• Better understanding
• Multiple Points of View
• Democratic decision-making
• Improves teamwork

Disadvantages:

• Time-consuming
• May be costly
• Sometimes unproductive

CONDUCTING A MEETING

 Conduct of a Meeting

A meeting of any kind is conducted by the convener, leader, or moderator.
These three persons have slightly different job descriptions.

• A convener is one who calls and arranges for the meeting.
• A leader or moderator is someone else appointed by the convener.
• The convener may conduct the meeting himself or may ask someone else to conduct it.

The organization’s rule book for the meeting and maintaining correct procedure is usually followed.
In case of court meetings and the chairman has to give a ruling and may have a casting vote.

A leader or moderator generally conducts the meeting or conference session.

Chairman’s Responsibilities

A person acting in any of the three capacities needs to be a skilful leader of discussion.

Whether appointed by statute or elected for the occasion or elected from among the group, the leader has to:

• carry out the function of guiding discussion
• keep the meeting on track
• arrive at a useful conclusion at the end of the given time

The leader must work up the agenda before the meeting and check that:

• all requirements are made available in the meeting room
• necessary staff is in attendance to assist at the meeting

Duties of the Chairman During the Meeting

The chairman must be tactful, courteous, and impartial.

The chairman should:

• keep the meeting moving
• maintain discipline
• ensure that discussion does not go beyond reasonable time

Time is an important factor in communication.
Long and boring meetings tire out participants and create a sense of wasted time.

The meeting usually runs a bad effect if:

• the leader arrives late
• the leader is not prepared

If the meeting requires note-taking, the leader may ask someone to take notes.
If no one is available, the leader himself can make notes on the chairman’s order.

1. Opening the Meeting

The opening of the meeting is very important because it sets the tone of the meeting.

A good opening:

• marks a productive beginning
• creates optimism

The chairman or leader must:

• outline the goal and objectives of the meeting
• explain the procedure to be followed
• clarify the break-up of the discussion topic
• specify the time allowed

The chairman’s introductory remarks should be:

• limited to two or three minutes
• addressed to all participants

2. Running the Meeting (Discussion Stage)

Running the meeting requires tact, patience, and control.

The chairman must:

• address a general question to the group
• if discussion does not work, address a specific question to a particular person

Some leaders take the discussion lightly and allow free talk, but:

• discussion should not exceed 20% of the total meeting time
• the leader’s job is to guide the discussion, not to take part in it

The leader should:

• avoid acting as an expert or authority on any matter
• ensure maximum participation from all members

If someone talks too much:

• the leader may intervene tactfully

Example from the book:

• “Mr. Agarwal, how would your section be affected by this?”
• “What has been your experience in this, Mrs. Mehta?”

If the discussion goes off track:

• The leader may interrupt politely
• Bring the discussion back to the main issue

If only a few people talk repeatedly:

• The leader must involve silent members

 Dealing with Differences of Opinion

Differences of opinion are natural in a meeting.

The chairman should:

• remain neutral
• avoid personal bias
• Focus on the subject, not on individuals

If necessary:

• The chairman may summarize different viewpoints
• encourage compromise

3. Closing the Meeting

When the meeting has slowed down or the topic has been fully discussed:

• the chairman should summarize the discussion
• restate the conclusions and decisions

The chairman should:

• ensure clarity about decisions taken
• Mention any follow-up action required

Finally, the chairman should:

• Thank the participants for their contribution
• officially declare the meeting closed

 Post-Meeting Activities

After the meeting:

• Conclusions must be recorded
• The chairman may write the report or get it written
• Minutes may be circulated to participants

Information like:

• letters
• office notes
• instructions

may be sent to concerned persons to implement decisions.

 

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PARTICIPANTS

Every participant has a stake in the meeting.

In fact, the alert participant finds a meeting an opportunity for continuing education in business management.

If participants actively participate, they gain:

• up-to-date information
• new viewpoints
• better understanding of the department or organization

The meeting also:

• develops the participant’s thinking ability
• improves presentation skills
• gives practice in expressing ideas clearly

Responsibilities of a Participant

The following are the suggestions for effective participation in a meeting:

(i) Be Prepared

• Never fail to do homework.
• Study every item on the agenda.
• Read all papers distributed with the agenda thoroughly.

(ii) Keep an Open Mind

• However well-prepared you may be, there is a possibility that:
• you may be wrong
• others may have better information
• Be prepared to:
• learn
• correct mistakes in thinking or information

(iii) Do Not Disturb Others

• Do not disturb other participants by:
• talking on the side
• shuffling papers
• unnecessary movements

(iv) Offer Helpful Suggestions

• If your idea or suggestion is defeated in the discussion:
• be graceful
• help clarify weak ideas of others

(v) Show Respect to Others

• Show interest in what others say.
• When someone makes a good point:
• show appreciation
• This encourages healthy discussion.

(vi) Disagree Politely

• Never personalize a difference of opinion.
• If disagreement is necessary:
• state your opinion clearly
• summarize the other person’s point
• explain why you disagree

(vii) Speak When Necessary

• Speak up if you have something useful to say.
• Especially speak on topics where:
• you have knowledge
• you have comments to contribute
• Avoid making lengthy speeches.

(viii) Control Emotions

• Do not get carried away by emotions.
• Problems cannot be solved by:
• jealousy
• revengefulness
• spite
• Willingness to examine ideas objectively is essential.

(ix) Be a Good Listener

• Be a good listener.
• You will learn:
• about matters
• about human behaviour
• Careful listening improves understanding.

(x) Be Courteous

• Be courteous at all times.
• Remember:
• manners must be as good as your ideas
• you are either the host or a guest

 Work Cited

Rai, Urmila, and S. M. Rai. Business Communication. Ninth Revised ed., Himalaya Publishing House, 2020.